Cesium-Promoted Nanostructured Catalysts in Dry Reforming of Methane: A Review
DOI:
https://doi.org/10.65204/djes.v3i1.484Keywords:
Cesium catalysts, Nanostructured catalysts, Dry reforming of methane, Syngas production, Methane conversionAbstract
Dry reformation of methane (DRM), which uses two greenhouse gases, CO₂ and CH₄, at the same time, is a sustainable method of producing syngas. DRM is hampered by catalyst deactivation brought on by coking, sintering, and structural instability under extreme operating conditions, despite its potential for the environment and industry. Recent developments demonstrate how well cesium (Cs) works as a promoter in nanostructured catalysts, where its strong basicity, large ionic radius, and electron-donating capacity improve CO₂ activation, suppress coke formation, and stabilize active metal sites. With a focus on their electrical and structural impacts, catalyst–reactant interactions, thermodynamic and kinetic functions, and the impact of various supports, this review synthesizes the state of knowledge about Cs-promoted nanostructured catalysts for DRM. Stability trends, structure-performance correlations, and Cs loading optimization for increased activity and durability are all given special consideration. Complemented by a section on generic, overarching concepts such as combined catalytic- and electrochemical processes, reactor design driven by simulation and integrated reactor concepts including hybrid applications, the authors discuss new strategies to address long-term durability, impurity management, feedstock tolerance and upscaling of power-to-X products. Overall, this investigation provides key new insights into the special promotion role of cesium in preparing nanostructured DRM catalysts for efficient and durable syngas production.
References
J. L. Weber, C. H. Mejía, K. P. de Jong, and P. E. de Jongh, “Recent advances in bifunctional synthesis gas conversion to chemicals and fuels with a comparison to monofunctional processes,” Catal. Sci. Technol., vol. 14, no. 17, pp. 4799–4842, “No Title”.
H. Ramadhan and M. Al-Ali, “Thermal Effects on Kinetics and Catalytic Efficiency of LaNiMnO3 in Methane Dry Reforming,” Al-Rafidain J. Eng. Sci., vol. 2, no. 2, pp. 403–412, Oct. 2024, doi: 10.61268/0FCXF449.
M. Al-Ali, A. Aljbory, and G. H. Abdullah, “Kinetic Analysis of Catalytic Dry Reforming of Methane Using Ni-ZrO2/MCM-41 Catalyst,” Tikrit J. Eng. Sci., vol. 31, no. 1, pp. 236–250, Mar. 2024, doi: 10.25130/tjes.31.1.20.
B. Yuan, T. Zhu, Y. Han, X. Zhang, M. Wang, and C. Li, “Deactivation Mechanism and Anti-Deactivation Measures of Metal Catalyst in the Dry Reforming of Methane: A Review,” Atmos. 2023, Vol. 14, Page 770, vol. 14, no. 5, p. 770, Apr. 2023, doi: 10.3390/ATMOS14050770.
F. Zaera, “Nanostructured materials for applications in heterogeneous catalysis,” Chem. Soc. Rev., vol. 42, no. 7, pp. 2746–2762, Mar. 2013, doi: 10.1039/C2CS35261C.
R. Liu, C. Chen, W. Chu, and W. Sun, “Unveiling the Origin of Alkali Metal (Na, K, Rb, and Cs) Promotion in CO2 Dissociation over Mo2 C Catalysts,” Materials (Basel)., vol. 15, no. 11, p. 3775, Jun. 2022, doi: 10.3390/MA15113775/S1.
Q. Zhang, L. Pastor-Pérez, W. Jin, S. Gu, and T. R. Reina, “Understanding the promoter effect of Cu and Cs over highly effective β-Mo2C catalysts for the reverse water-gas shift reaction,” Appl. Catal. B Environ., vol. 244, pp. 889–898, May 2019, doi: 10.1016/J.APCATB.2018.12.023.
P. J. Kelly and D. Glötzel, “Electronic properties of expanded cesium,” Phys. Rev. B, vol. 33, no. 8, p. 5284, Apr. 1986, doi: 10.1103/PhysRevB.33.5284.
F. Aryasetiawan and K. Karlsson, “Energy Loss Spectra and Plasmon Dispersions in Alkali Metals: Negative Plasmon Dispersion in Cs,” Phys. Rev. Lett., vol. 73, no. 12, p. 1679, Sep. 1994, doi: 10.1103/PhysRevLett. 73.1679.
M. O. Farea, A. M. Abdelghany, M. S. Meikhail, and A. H. Oraby, “Effect of cesium bromide on the structural, optical, thermal and electrical properties of polyvinyl alcohol and polyethylene oxide,” J. Mater. Res. Technol., vol. 9, no. 2, pp. 1530–1538, Mar. 2020, doi: 10.1016/J.JMRT.2019.11.078.
R. Islam et al., “Strain-induced electronic and optical properties of inorganic lead halide perovskites APbBr3 (A= Rb and Cs),” Mater. Today Commun., vol. 31, p. 103305, Jun. 2022, doi: 10.1016/J.MTCOMM.2022.103305.
“The ‘cesium effect’ magnified: exceptional chemoselectivity in cesium ion mediated nucleophilic reactions - Chemical Science (RSC Publishing) DOI:10.1039/D4SC00316K.” Accessed: Oct. 03, 2025. [Online]. Available: https://pubs.rsc.org/en/content/articlehtml/2024/sc/d4sc00316k
L. Matachowski, A. Zięba, M. Zembala, and A. Drelinkiewicz, “A comparison of catalytic properties of Cs x H 3-x PW 12 O 40 salts of various cesium contents in gas phase and liquid phase reactions,” Catal. Letters, vol. 133, no. 1–2, pp. 49–62, Sep. 2009, doi: 10.1007/S10562-009-0149-Y/METRICS.
A. A. M. Abahussain et al., “Cs promoted Ni/ZrO2-Al2O3 catalysts for dry reforming of methane: Promotional effects of Cs for enhanced catalytic activity and stability,” Arab. J. Chem., vol. 17, no. 2, p. 105564, Feb. 2024, doi: 10.1016/J.ARABJC.2023.105564.
[object Object], “Thermodynamic properties of cesium up to 1500 deg k”.
H. Loukusa and V. Valtavirta, “APPLICATION OF CONSTRAINED GIBBS ENERGY MINIMIZATION TO NUCLEAR FUEL THERMOCHEMISTRY”.
F. Han, G. H. Zhang, and P. Gu, “Adsorption kinetics and equilibrium modeling of cesium on copper ferrocyanide,” J. Radioanal. Nucl. Chem., vol. 295, no. 1, pp. 369–377, Jan. 2013, doi: 10.1007/S10967-012-1854-3/METRICS.
M. Trueba and S. P. Trasatti, “γ-Alumina as a Support for Catalysts: A Review of Fundamental Aspects,” Eur. J. Inorg. Chem., vol. 2005, no. 17, pp. 3393–3403, Sep. 2005, doi: 10.1002/EJIC.200500348.
S. Wang and G. Q. Lu, “Catalytic Activities and Coking Characteristics of Oxides-Supported Ni Catalysts for CH4 Reforming with Carbon Dioxide,” Energy and Fuels, vol. 12, no. 2, pp. 248–256, 1998, doi: 10.1021/EF970092M.
C. B. Mullins, G. S. Hwang, G. A. Henkelman, and J. Resasco, “The development of commercially viable Ni catalysts for dry reforming of methane,” Jul. 2023, doi: 10.26153/TSW/50064.
K. Singh, S. Harish, Y. Hayakawa, and M. Shimomura, “Experimental and theoretical study of oxygen vacancy induced La-doped mesoporous TiO2 for enhanced thermal stability,” AIP Adv., vol. 13, no. 5, May 2023, doi: 10.1063/5.0138159.
A. BaQais et al., “Impact of Support Type on Nickel-Based Catalysts for the Dry Reforming of Methane,” Energy Sci. Eng., 2025, doi: 10.1002/ESE3.70215.
N. C. Strandwitz, S. Shaner, and G. D. Stucky, “Compositional tunability and high temperature stability of ceria–zirconia hollow spheres,” J. Mater. Chem., vol. 21, no. 29, pp. 10672–10675, Jul. 2011, doi: 10.1039/C1JM10897B.
N. Alwadai et al., “Methane partial oxidation with Ni-Mg-Al hydrotalcites: Impact of magnesium on catalyst performance,” Int. J. Green Energy, Aug. 2025, doi: 10.1080/15435075.2025.2537733.
D. Gulková, O. Šolcová, and M. Zdražil, “Preparation of MgO catalytic support in shaped mesoporous high surface area form,” Microporous Mesoporous Mater., vol. 76, no. 1–3, pp. 137–149, Dec. 2004, doi: 10.1016/J.MICROMESO.2004.07.039.
S. Chen and Y. H. Hu, “Progress in the development of NiO/MgO solid solution catalysts: a review,” Surf. Innov., vol. 13, no. 2, pp. 84–94, Apr. 2025, doi: 10.1680/JSUIN.24.00103.
M. Misono, “Chemistry and Catalysis of Mixed Oxides,” Stud. Surf. Sci. Catal., vol. 176, pp. 25–65, Jan. 2013, doi: 10.1016/B978-0-444-53833-8.00002-8.
G. Murali Dhar, B. N. Srinivas, M. S. Rana, M. Kumar, and S. K. Maity, “Mixed oxide supported hydrodesulfurization catalysts—a review,” Catal. Today, vol. 86, no. 1–4, pp. 45–60, Nov. 2003, doi: 10.1016/S0920-5861(03)00403-6.
T. Tan et al., “Insight into the effects of the CO2/H2O activation and Ce redox cycle over ni/CeO2/hydrotalcite catalyst surface on biogas Bi-reforming for methanol friendly syngas,” Energy, vol. 313, p. 133954, Dec. 2024, doi: 10.1016/J.ENERGY.2024.133954.
M. Qiu et al., “Upgrading biomass fuel gas by reforming over Ni–MgO/γ-Al2O3 cordierite monolithic catalysts in the lab-scale reactor and pilot-scale multi-tube reformer,” Appl. Energy, vol. 90, no. 1, pp. 3–10, Feb. 2012, doi: 10.1016/J.APENERGY.2011.01.064.
W. S. Dong, K. W. Jun, H. S. Roh, Z. W. Liu, and S. E. Park, “Comparative study on partial oxidation of methane over Ni/ZrO2, Ni/CeO2 and Ni/Ce-ZrO2 catalysts,” Catal. Letters, vol. 78, no. 1–4, pp. 215–222, Mar. 2002, doi: 10.1023/A:1014905318290/METRICS.
D. Kiani, S. Sourav, Y. Tang, J. Baltrusaitis, and I. E. Wachs, “Methane activation by ZSM-5-supported transition metal centers,” Chem. Soc. Rev., vol. 50, no. 2, pp. 1251–1268, Feb. 2021, doi: 10.1039/D0CS01016B.
Q. Zhu et al., “Enhanced CO2 utilization in dry reforming of methane achieved through nickel-mediated hydrogen spillover in zeolite crystals,” Nat. Catal., vol. 5, no. 11, pp. 1030–1037, Nov. 2022, doi: 10.1038/S41929-022-00870-8;TECHMETA.
M. C. Bacariza, I. Graça, S. S. Bebiano, J. M. Lopes, and C. Henriques, “Micro- and mesoporous supports for CO2 methanation catalysts: A comparison between SBA-15, MCM-41 and USY zeolite,” Chem. Eng. Sci., vol. 175, pp. 72–83, Jan. 2018, doi: 10.1016/J.CES.2017.09.027.
K. S. Park et al., “Enhanced thermal stability of Ni nanoparticles in ordered mesoporous supports for dry reforming of methane with CO2,” Catal. Today, vol. 388–389, pp. 224–230, Apr. 2022, doi: 10.1016/J.CATTOD.2020.07.016.
M. S. Abdel Salam, M. A. Betiha, S. A. Shaban, A. M. Elsabagh, R. M. Abd El-Aal, and F. Y. El kady, “Synthesis and characterization of MCM-41-supported nano zirconia catalysts,” Egypt. J. Pet., vol. 24, no. 1, pp. 49–57, Mar. 2015, doi: 10.1016/J.EJPE.2015.02.005.
D. Liu, R. Lau, A. Borgna, and Y. Yang, “Carbon dioxide reforming of methane to synthesis gas over Ni-MCM-41 catalysts,” Appl. Catal. A Gen., vol. 358, no. 2, pp. 110–118, May 2009, doi: 10.1016/J.APCATA.2008.12.044.
R. Majee, Q. A. Islam, and S. Bhattacharyya, “Surface Charge Modulation of Perovskite Oxides at the Crystalline Junction with Layered Double Hydroxide for a Durable Rechargeable Zinc–Air Battery,” ACS Appl. Mater. Interfaces, vol. 11, no. 39, pp. 35853–35862, Oct. 2019, doi: 10.1021/ACSAMI.9B09299.
L. Wu, X. Xie, H. Ren, and X. Gao, “A short review on nickel-based catalysts in dry reforming of methane: Influences of oxygen defects on anti-coking property,” Mater. Today Proc., vol. 42, pp. 153–160, Jan. 2021, doi: 10.1016/J.MATPR.2020.10.697.
A. G. Georgiadis, N. D. Charisiou, and M. A. Goula, “A Mini-Review on Lanthanum–Nickel-Based Perovskite-Derived Catalysts for Hydrogen Production via the Dry Reforming of Methane (DRM),” Catal. 2023, Vol. 13, Page 1357, vol. 13, no. 10, p. 1357, Oct. 2023, doi: 10.3390/CATAL13101357.
C. A. Velásquez et al., “Full-Solution Processed Halide Perovskite Photoanodes with Carbon/NiFe-LDH Protection for Efficient Photoelectrochemical Water Oxidation,” Small, vol. 21, no. 31, p. 2412713, Aug. 2025, doi: 10.1002/SMLL.202412713.
R. Khan et al., “3D hierarchical heterostructured LSTN@NiMn-layered double hydroxide as a bifunctional water splitting electrocatalyst for hydrogen production,” Fuel, vol. 285, p. 119174, Feb. 2021, doi: 10.1016/J.FUEL.2020.119174.
J. Feng, Y. He, Y. Liu, Y. Du, and D. Li, “Supported catalysts based on layered double hydroxides for catalytic oxidation and hydrogenation: general functionality and promising application prospects,” Chem. Soc. Rev., vol. 44, no. 15, pp. 5291–5319, 2015, doi: 10.1039/c5cs00268k.
W. Zhang, H. Zhao, H. Song, and L. Chou, “Unbounding the Future: Designing NiAl-Based Catalysts for Dry Reforming of Methane,” Chem. - An Asian J., vol. 19, no. 17, Sep. 2024, doi: 10.1002/ASIA.202400503.
Z. Bian, W. Zhong, Y. Yu, Z. Wang, B. Jiang, and S. Kawi, “Dry reforming of methane on Ni/mesoporous-Al2O3 catalysts: Effect of calcination temperature,” Int. J. Hydrogen Energy, vol. 46, no. 60, pp. 31041–31053, Sep. 2021, doi: 10.1016/J.IJHYDENE.2020.12.064.
M. S. Lanre et al., “Catalytic Performance of Lanthanum Promoted Ni/ZrO2 for Carbon Dioxide Reforming of Methane,” Process. 2020, Vol. 8, Page 1502, vol. 8, no. 11, p. 1502, Nov. 2020, doi: 10.3390/PR8111502.
P. H. Phuong, H. C. Anh, N. Tri, and N. P. Anh, “Effect of support on stability and coke resistance of Ni-based catalyst in combined steam and CO₂ reforming of CH₄,” ACS Omega, vol. 7, no. 26, pp. 22520–22532, 2022, doi:10.1021/acsomega.2c0193.
K. J. Chaudhary, A. S. Al-Fatesh, and A. A. Ibrahim, “Hydrogen production through methane dry reforming: Evaluating the effects of promoter-induced variations in reducibility, basicity, and crystallinity on Ni/ZSM-5 catalyst,” Journal of Energy Chemistry, vol. 87, no. 4, pp. 210–222, 2024, doi: 10.1016/j.jechem.2024.01.090.
Muñoz, H. J., Korili, S. A., & Gil, A. (2024). Recent advances in the application of Ni-perovskite-based catalysts for the dry reforming of methane. Catalysis Reviews. https://doi.org/10.1080/01614940.2024.2401570
Q. Wang and D. Ohare, “Recent Advances in the Synthesis and Application of Layered Double Hydroxide (LDH) Nanosheets,” Chem. Rev., vol. 112, no. 7, pp. 4124–4155, Jul. 2012, doi: 10.1021/CR200434V.
A. A. Ibrahim, A. A. Al-Fatesh, H. Atia, A. H. Fakeeha, S. O. Kasim, and A. E. Abasaeed, “Influence of promoted 5%Ni/MCM-41 catalysts on hydrogen yield in CO2 reforming of CH4,” Int. J. Energy Res., vol. 42, no. 13, pp. 4120–4130, Oct. 2018, doi: 10.1002/er.4156.
S. Zhang, Y. Gao, Q. Niu, and P. Zhang, “Enhancing coke resistance of Ni-based spinel-type oxides by tuning the configurational entropy,” J. Catal., vol. 440, p. 115819, Dec. 2024, doi: 10.1016/J.JCAT.2024.115819.
S. Azeem et al., “Surface engineered sustainable nanocatalyst with improved coke resistance for dry methane reforming to produce hydrogen,” Process Saf. Environ. Prot., vol. 187, pp. 962–973, Jul. 2024, doi: 10.1016/j.psep.2024.05.033.
“Plasma-catalytic ammonia synthesis beyond thermal equilibrium on Ru-based catalysts in non-thermal plasma - Catalysis Science & Technology (RSC Publishing) DOI:10.1039/D0CY02189J.” Accessed: Oct. 03, 2025. [Online]. Available: https://pubs.rsc.org/en/content/articlehtml/2021/cy/d0cy02189j
C. Stefano Agnoli Supervisor, C. D. Antonella Glisenti Ph student, and L. Rizzato, “Activation of stable molecules with nanostructured oxide photocatalysts: shading light on the molecule-matter interaction with advanced characterization techniques,” 2025, Accessed: Oct. 04, 2025. [Online]. Available: https://tesidottorato.depositolegale.it/handle/20.500.14242/201100
Y. Yang, Y. Xu, Q. Li, Y. Zhang, and H. Zhou, “Two-dimensional carbide/nitride (MXene) materials in thermal catalysis,” J. Mater. Chem. A, vol. 10, no. 37, pp. 19444–19465, Sep. 2022, doi: 10.1039/D2TA03481F.
M. A. Vasiliades, P. Djinović, L. F. Davlyatova, A. Pintar, and A. M. Efstathiou, “Origin and reactivity of active and inactive carbon formed during DRM over Ni/Ce0.38Zr0.62O2-δ studied by transient isotopic techniques,” Catal. Today, vol. 299, pp. 201–211, Jan. 2018, doi: 10.1016/J.CATTOD.2017.03.057.
H. A. Razak, N. Abdullah, H. D. Setiabudi, C. S. Yee, and N. Ainirazali, “Influenced of Ni loading on SBA-15 synthesized from oil Palm ash silica for syngas production,” IOP Conf. Ser. Mater. Sci. Eng., vol. 702, no. 1, p. 012024, Nov. 2019, doi: 10.1088/1757-899X/702/1/012024.
J. Zhang et al., “Tuning metal-support interactions in nickel–zeolite catalysts leads to enhanced stability during dry reforming of methane,” Nat. Commun. , vol. 15, no. 1, pp. 1–11, Dec. 2024, doi: 10.1038/S41467-024-50729-8;TECHMETA.
A. Liu and M. Verónica, “Title In situ investigation of methane dry reforming on metal/ceria(111) surfaces: metal-support interactions and C-H bond activation at low temperature,” 2017, doi: 10.1002/ange.201707538.
Y. Sun, G. Zhang, Y. Xu, and R. Zhang, “Dry reforming of methane over Co-Ce-M/AC-N catalyst: Effect of promoters (Ca and Mg) and preparation method on catalytic activity and stability,” Int. J. Hydrogen Energy, vol. 44, no. 41, pp. 22972–22982, Aug. 2019, doi: 10.1016/J.IJHYDENE.2019.07.010.
B. M. Reddy, P. Saikia, P. Bharali, L. Katta, and G. Thrimurthulu, “Highly dispersed ceria and ceria–zirconia nanocomposites over silica surface for catalytic applications,” Catal. Today, vol. 141, no. 1–2, pp. 109–114, Mar. 2009, doi: 10.1016/J.CATTOD.2008.05.008.
S. A. Al-Zahrani et al., “Ca-, Mg-, Sc-, and Y-Stabilized Zirconia: High-Performance Support Material for Dry Reforming of Methane and Solid-Electrolyte Material for Fuel Cell,” Catalysts, vol. 15, no. 4, p. 300, Apr. 2025, doi: 10.3390/CATAL15040300/S1.
A. H. Fakeeha et al., “Role of promoters over yttria-zirconia supported Ni catalyst for dry reforming of methane,” Energy Sci. Eng., vol. 11, no. 11, pp. 4366–4380, Nov. 2023, doi: 10.1002/ESE3.1586.
K. Ciura, G. Grzybek, S. Wójcik, P. Indyka, A. Kotarba, and Z. Sojka, “Optimization of cesium and potassium promoter loading in alkali-doped Zn0.4Co2.6O4|Al2O3 catalysts for N2O abatement,” React. Kinet. Mech. Catal., vol. 121, no. 2, pp. 645–655, Aug. 2017, doi: 10.1007/S11144-017-1188-9/FIGURES/6.
S. Li et al., “Impacts of Mo Promotion on Nickel-Based Catalysts for the Synthesis of High Quality Carbon Nanotubes Using CO2 as the Carbon Source,” J. Nanosci. Nanotechnol., vol. 20, no. 2, pp. 1109–1117, Aug. 2019, doi: 10.1166/JNN.2020.16966.
Q. Ma et al., “C–C bond coupling with sp3 C–H bond via active intermediates from CO2 hydrogenation,” Nat. Commun. , vol. 16, no. 1, pp. 1–12, Dec. 2025, doi: 10.1038/S41467-024-55640-W;TECHMETA.
O. Daoura et al., “One-pot prepared mesoporous silica SBA-15-like monoliths with embedded Ni particles as selective and stable catalysts for methane dry reforming,” Appl. Catal. B Environ., vol. 280, p. 119417, Jan. 2021, doi: 10.1016/J.APCATB.2020.119417.
Y. Liang et al., “Improved low-temperature catalytic oxidation performance of Pt-based catalysts by modulating the electronic and size effects,” New J. Chem., vol. 44, no. 25, pp. 10500–10506, Jun. 2020, doi: 10.1039/D0NJ00550A.
B. C. d. Silva, P. H. C. Bastos, R. B. S. Junior, N. R. Checca, R. Fréty, and S. T. Brandão, “Perovskite-type catalysts based on nickel applied in the Oxy-CO2 reforming of CH4: Effect of catalyst nature and operative conditions,” Catal. Today, vol. 369, pp. 19–30, Jun. 2021, doi: 10.1016/J.CATTOD.2020.07.060.
Z. Rajabi et al., “Influence of Cs Promoter on Ethanol Steam-Reforming Selectivity of Pt/m-ZrO2 Catalysts at Low Temperature,” Catal. 2021, Vol. 11, Page 1104, vol. 11, no. 9, p. 1104, Sep. 2021, doi: 10.3390/CATAL11091104.
A. A. Ibrahim et al., “The Effectiveness of Ni-Based Bimetallic Catalysts Supported by MgO-Modified Alumina in Dry Methane Reforming,” Catal. 2023, Vol. 13, Page 1420, vol. 13, no. 11, p. 1420, Nov. 2023, doi: 10.3390/CATAL13111420.
H. J. Muñoz, S. A. Korili, and A. Gil, “Recent advances in the application of Ni-perovskite-based catalysts for the dry reforming of methane,” Catal. Rev., Sep. 2024, doi: 10.1080/01614940.2024.2401570.
K. Artyushkova, S. Pylypenko, M. Dowlapalli, and P. Atanassov, “Structure-to-property relationships in fuel cell catalyst supports: Correlation of surface chemistry and morphology with oxidation resistance of carbon blacks,” J. Power Sources, vol. 214, pp. 303–313, Sep. 2012, doi: 10.1016/J.JPOWSOUR.2012.04.095.
X. Zheng et al., “Insight into the effect of morphology on catalytic performance of porous CeO2 nanocrystals for H2S selective oxidation,” Appl. Catal. B Environ., vol. 252, pp. 98–110, Sep. 2019, doi: 10.1016/J.APCATB.2019.04.014.
P. Sinha, A. Datar, C. Jeong, X. Deng, Y. G. Chung, and L. C. Lin, “Surface Area Determination of Porous Materials Using the Brunauer–Emmett–Teller (BET) Method: Limitations and Improvements,” J. Phys. Chem. C, vol. 123, no. 33, pp. 20195–20209, Aug. 2019, doi: 10.1021/ACS.JPCC.9B02116.
Y. S. Bae, A. Ö. Yazayd’n, and R. Q. Snurr, “Evaluation of the BET Method for Determining Surface Areas of MOFs and Zeolites that Contain Ultra-Micropores,” Langmuir, vol. 26, no. 8, pp. 5475–5483, Apr. 2010, doi: 10.1021/LA100449Z.
J. M. Sobral, S. G. Caridade, R. A. Sousa, J. F. Mano, and R. L. Reis, “Three-dimensional plotted scaffolds with controlled pore size gradients: Effect of scaffold geometry on mechanical performance and cell seeding efficiency,” Acta Biomater., vol. 7, no. 3, pp. 1009–1018, Mar. 2011, doi: 10.1016/J.ACTBIO.2010.11.003.
Y. Strength et al., “Strength Analysis of Cement Mortar with Carbon Nanotube Dispersion Based on Fractal Dimension of Pore Structure,” Fractal Fract. 2022, Vol. 6, Page 609, vol. 6, no. 10, p. 609, Oct. 2022, doi: 10.3390/FRACTALFRACT6100609.
G. T. Whiting et al., “Multiscale Mechanistic Insights of Shaped Catalyst Body Formulations and Their Impact on Catalytic Properties,” ACS Catal., vol. 9, no. 6, pp. 4792–4803, Jun. 2019, doi: 10.1021/ACSCATAL.9B00151.
J. Gong et al., “Striking influence of NiO catalyst diameter on the carbonization of polypropylene into carbon nanomaterials and their high performance in the adsorption of oils,” RSC Adv., vol. 4, no. 64, pp. 33806–33814, Aug. 2014, doi: 10.1039/C4RA05016A.
A. Wang, C. Wang, L. Fu, W. Wong-Ng, and Y. Lan, “Recent advances of graphitic carbon nitride-based structures and applications in catalyst, sensing, imaging, and leds,” Nano-Micro Lett., vol. 9, no. 4, pp. 1–21, Oct. 2017, doi: 10.1007/S40820-017-0148-2/METRICS.
J. Iranmahboob, H. Toghiani, and D. O. Hill, “Dispersion of alkali on the surface of Co-MoS2/clay catalyst: a comparison of K and Cs as a promoter for synthesis of alcohol,” Appl. Catal. A Gen., vol. 247, no. 2, pp. 207–218, Jul. 2003, doi: 10.1016/S0926-860X(03)00092-9.
W. M. Kedir and W. M. Kedir, “Bifunctional Heterogeneous Catalysts for Biodiesel Production Using Low-Cost Feedstocks: A Future Perspective,” Adv. Biodiesel - Technol. Adv. Challenges, Sustain. Considerations, Mar. 2023, doi: 10.5772/INTECHOPEN.109482.
P. Zhang, J. Yao, Y. an Zhu, Z. Liu, and K. Zhu, “Cs-Promoted Co Particles on Yttria-Stabilized Zirconia as Coke-Tolerance Methane Dry Reforming Catalyst under Elevated Pressure,” ChemNanoMat, vol. 11, no. 1, p. e202400460, Jan. 2025, doi: 10.1002/CNMA.202400460.
B. M. Weckhuysen and R. A. Schoonheydt, “Recent progress in diffuse reflectance spectroscopy of supported metal oxide catalysts,” Catal. Today, vol. 49, no. 4, pp. 441–451, Mar. 1999, doi: 10.1016/S0920-5861(98)00458-1.
R. Rabie, M. M. Hammouda, and K. M. Elattar, “Cesium carbonate as a mediated inorganic base in some organic transformations,” Res. Chem. Intermed., vol. 43, no. 4, pp. 1979–2015, Apr. 2017, doi: 10.1007/S11164-016-2744-Z/METRICS.
E. P. Reddy and P. G. Smirniotis, “High-Temperature Sorbents for CO2 Made of Alkali Metals Doped on CaO Supports,” J. Phys. Chem. B, vol. 108, no. 23, pp. 7794–7800, Jun. 2004, doi: 10.1021/JP031245B.
H. M. Vieri, A. Badakhsh, and S. H. Choi, “Comparative Study of Ba, Cs, K, and Li as Promoters for Ru/La2Ce2O7-Based Catalyst for Ammonia Synthesis,” Int. J. Energy Res., vol. 2023, no. 1, p. 2072245, Jan. 2023, doi: 10.1155/2023/2072245.
D. Fino, G. Saracco, and V. Specchia, “Filtration and catalytic abatement of diesel particulate from stationary sources,” Chem. Eng. Sci., vol. 57, no. 22–23, pp. 4955–4966, Nov. 2002, doi: 10.1016/S0009-2509(02)00295-6.
D. Hu, A. Addad, K. Ben Tayeb, V. V. Ordomsky, and A. Y. Khodakov, “Thermocatalysis enables photocatalytic oxidation of methane to formic acid at room temperature beyond the selectivity limits,” Cell Reports Phys. Sci., vol. 4, no. 2, p. 101277, Feb. 2023, doi: 10.1016/j.xcrp.2023.101277.
J. Madhusudhan Naik, B. Bulfin, C. A. Triana, D. C. Stoian, and G. R. Patzke, “Cation-Deficient Ce-Substituted Perovskite Oxides with Dual-Redox Active Sites for Thermochemical Applications,” ACS Appl. Mater. Interfaces, vol. 15, no. 1, pp. 806–817, 2022, doi: 10.1021/ACSAMI.2C15169.
C. Papadopoulou, H. Matralis, and X. Verykios, “Utilization of Biogas as a Renewable Carbon Source: Dry Reforming of Methane,” Catal. Altern. Energy Gener., vol. 9781461403449, pp. 57–127, Apr. 2012, doi: 10.1007/978-1-4614-0344-9_3.
A. Ganguli and V. Bhatt, “Hydrogen production using advanced reactors by steam methane reforming: A review,” Front. Therm. Eng., vol. 3, p. 1143987, Apr. 2023, doi: 10.3389/FTHER.2023.1143987.
Y. Gao, X. Li, J. E. Stevens, H. Tang, and J. M. Smith, “Catalytic 1,3-Proton Transfer in Alkenes Enabled by Fe=NR Bond Cooperativity: A Strategy for p Ka-Dictated Regioselective Transposition of C=C Double Bonds,” J. Am. Chem. Soc., vol. 145, no. 22, pp. 11978–11987, Jun. 2023, doi: 10.1021/JACS.2C13350/SUPPL_FILE/JA2C13350_SI_002.XYZ.
C. Jones et al., “Evidence of hydrogen trapping at second phase particles in zirconium alloys,” Sci. Rep., vol. 11, no. 1, pp. 1–12, Dec. 2021, doi: 10.1038/S41598-021-83859-W;SUBJMETA.
Q. Yang et al., “Flexible thermoelectrics based on ductile semiconductors,” Science (80-. )., vol. 377, no. 6608, pp. 854–858, Aug. 2022, doi: 10.1126/SCIENCE.ABQ0682.
J. Lee, E. E. Kwon, and Y. K. Park, “Recent advances in the catalytic pyrolysis of microalgae,” Sep. 15, 2020, Elsevier. doi: 10.1016/j.cattod.2019.03.010.
R. Tang et al., “Hydrothermal deposition of antimony selenosulfide thin films enables solar cells with 10% efficiency,” Nat. Energy, vol. 5, no. 8, pp. 587–595, Aug. 2020, doi: 10.1038/S41560-020-0652-3;SUBJMETA.
